AAEP* Guidelines for Vaccinations of Horses:

Disease/vaccine	Foals/weanlings	Yearlings	Performance Horses	Pleasure Horses	Broodmares	Comments
West Nile Virus	First dose:  3 to 4 months. Second does:  1 month later (plus 3rd dose at 6 months in endemic areas.)	Annual booster, prior to expected risk.  Vaccinate semi-annually or more frequently (every 4 months), depending on risk.	Annual booster, prior to expected risk.  Vaccinate semi-annually or more frequently (every 4  months), depending on risk.	Annual booster, prior to expected risk.  Vaccinate semi-annually or more frequently (every 4  months), depending on risk.	Annual, 4 to 6 weeks prepartum (see full text in guidelines).	Annual booster is after primary series.  In endemic areas, booster as required or warranted due to local conditions conducive to disease risk.  Vaccinate semi-annually or more frequently (every 4 months), depending on risk.
Tetanus toxoid	From nonvaccinated mare:  First dose:  3 to 4 months.  Second dose:  4 to 5 months. From vaccinated mare:  First dose:  6 months.  Second dose:  7 months.  Third dose:  8 to 9 months.	Annual.	Annual.	Annual.	Annual, 4 to 6 weeks prepartum.	Booster at time of penetrating injury or surgery if last dose not administered within 6 months.
Encephalomyelitis (EEE, WEE, VEE)	EEE (in high-risk areas):  First dose:  3 to 4 months.  Second dose:  4 to 5 months.  Third dose:  5 to 6 months. WEE, EEE (in low-risk areas) and VEE:  From nonvaccinated mare:  First dose:  3 to 4 months.  Second dose:  4 to 5 months.  Third dose:  5 to 6 months. From vaccinated mare:  First dose:  6 months.  Second dose:  7 months.  Third dose:  8 months.	Annual, spring. Annual, spring.	Annual, spring. Annual, spring.	Annual, spring. Annual, spring.	Annual, 4 to 6 weeks prepartum. Annual, 4 to 6 weeks prepartum.	In endemic areas booster EEE and WEE every 6 months, VEE only needed when threat of exposure;  VEE may only be available as a combination vaccine with EEE and WEE.
Influenza	Inactivated injectable:  From nonvaccinated mare:  First dose:  6 months.  Second dose:  7 months.  Third dose:  8 months.  Then at 3-month intervals. From vaccinated mare:  First dose:  9 months.  Second dose:  10 months.  Third dose:  11 to 12 months.  Then at 3-month intervals. Intranasal modified live virus:  First dose:  11 months;   has been safely administered to foals less than 11 months - see comments.	Every 3 to 4 months. Every 6 months.	Every 3 to 4 months. Every 6 months.	Annual with added boosters prior to likely exposure, every 6 months.	At least semi-annual, with 1 booster 4 to 6 weeks prepartum. Annual before breeding (see comments).	A series of at least 3 doses is recommended for primary immunization of foals.  Not recommended for pregnant mares until data available.  Use inactivated vaccine for prepartum booster.  If first dose is administered to foals less than 11 months of age, administer 2nd dose at or after 11 months of age.
Rhinopneumonitis (EHV-1 and EHV-4)	First dose:  4 to 6 months.  Second dose:  5 to 7 months.  Third dose:  6 to 8 months.  Then at 3-month intervals.	Booster every 3 to 4 months, up to annually.	Booster every 3 to 4 months, up to annually.	Optional:  semi-annual if elected.	Fifth, seventh, ninth month of gestation (inactivated EHV-1 vaccine);  optional dose at third month of gestation.	Vaccination of mares before breeding and 4 to 6 weeks prepartum is suggested.  Breeding stallions should be vaccinated before the breeding season and semi-annually.
Strangles	Injectable:  First dose:  4 to 6 months.  Second dose:  5 to 7 months.  Third dose:  7 to 8 months (depending on the product used).  Fourth dose:  12 months. Intranasal:  First dose:  6 to 9 months.  Second dose:  3 weeks later.	Semi-annual.	Optional:  semi-annual, if risk is high.	Optional:  semi-annual, if risk is high.	Semi-annual with 1 dose of inactivated M-protein vaccine 4 to 6 weeks prepartum.	Vaccines containing M-protein extract may be less reactive than whole-cell vaccines.  Use when endemic conditions exist or risk is high.  Foals as young as 6 weeks of age may safely receive the intranasal product.  A third dose should be administered 2 to 4 weeks prior to weaning.
Rabies	Foals born to non-vaccinated mares:  First dose:  3 to 4 months.  Second dose:  12 months. Foals born to vaccinated mares:  First dose 6 months.  Second dose:  7 months.  Third dose:  12 months.	Annual.	Annual.	Annual.	Annual, before breeding.	Vaccination recommended in endemic areas.  Do not use modified-live-virus vaccines in horses.
Potomac Horse Fever	First dose:  5 to 6 months.  Second dose:  6 to 7 months.	Semi-annual.	Semi-annual.	Semi-annual.	Semi-annual with 1 dose 4 to 6 weeks prepartum.	Booster during May to June in endemic areas.

*American Association of Equine Practitioners

Horse owners can still vaccinate animals against West Nile virus
Filed under Research, Florida, Veterinary on Wednesday, November 15, 2006.GAINESVILLE, Fla.

 Although cooler temperatures have arrived in Florida, horses in the Sunshine State are still at risk for contracting potentially fatal mosquito-borne diseases, such as West Nile virus, University of Florida veterinarians and state officials warn.

“The National Weather Service is projecting a warmer than normal winter, so horse owners should not become complacent and make sure they vaccinate their horse,” said Michael Short, equine programs manager for the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services’ Division of Animal Industry.

While state officials report no equine cases yet this year, a new single-dose vaccine recently tested in horses by a University of Florida infectious disease specialist may reduce the overall occurrence of the cyclical virus because the product can be administered any time of year, with almost immediate protection. Known as PreveNile, the vaccine began reaching veterinarians in late September.

“Horse owners who have not vaccinated their animals already should do so as soon as possible,” said Maureen Long, an associate professor of equine medicine at UF’s College of Veterinary Medicine and a nationally recognized expert on West Nile virus. “We want horse owners to vaccinate if they haven’t, because since there is no cure for West Nile Virus, prevention is really the only tool we have for controlling this ongoing threat.”

As of Oct. 31, the disease has been reported in 3,752 people nationwide and in 939 horses this year. In its most serious manifestation, West Nile virus causes fatal inflammation of the brain, and it also occurs in a variety of domestic and wild birds, including crows. Nationwide, more than 23,000 cases have been reported in horses since its initial appearance in 1999, with more than a third of these animals dying, including more than 1,000 in Florida.

West Nile virus cycles between birds and mosquitoes, and mosquito bites are the only way a horse can become infected. Horses and humans infected with the disease cannot infect other horses and humans, experts say. Compared with most states, Florida has a year-round mosquito season, but the insects are most active in the summer and fall.

“Vaccination is a very important component of horses’ health, and the arboviruses, West Nile virus and Eastern equine encephalitis, are two diseases we strongly urge horse owners to have their horses vaccinated for,” Short said. “Many horses die every year from these two diseases and those we report are just confirmed cases. There probably are a lot more out there that we don’t hear about.”

PreveNile is marketed by Intervet Inc. and received approval from the U.S. Department of Agriculture for commercial use in July. Long and her staff provided immune protection studies for the product, the first live-virus vaccine to prevent West Nile virus in horses.

PreveNile provides 12 months of immunity and may be used even if other products have been administered within the past year. Other vaccines previously on the market required two doses before becoming effective.

“The other vaccines are labeled only for protection against viremia, or the presence of virus in the blood,” Long said. “This is the only market vaccine that is labeled for protection against disease itself because of the way in which we tested the product in horses.”

Some 19,000 humans have been infected with the virus, and nearly 800 people have died from it, according to the USDA’s animal and plant health industry surveillance program.

“There is intense interest in developing vaccination strategies for humans,” Long said. “A similar product is currently being tested in humans by Acambis Inc., the human vaccine company that constructed this product originally. Work in horses is invaluable for assessment of this type of vaccine for use in humans.”

Herpesvirus Vaccination Recommendations
by: Kimberly S. Brown, Editor
December 27 2006 Article # 8492, www.thehorse.com

The following vaccination recommendations for equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1) were made by Julia Wilson, DVM, Dipl. ACVIM, associate professor of Veterinary Population Medicine at the University of Minnesota. There is some debate among researchers and veterinarians on which vaccine (modified live or killed) is best. Wilson reminds horse owners that no vaccine completely prevents disease, and vaccinated animals can still transmit the disease to others, so other disease prevention strategies (such as quarantine and good hygiene) should always be employed.

EHV vaccines currently on the U.S. market are: Calvenza EHV and CalvenzaEIV/EHV (killed virus, aka inactivated, from Boehringer Ingelheim); Pneumabort K (inactivated from Fort Dodge); Prodigy with Havlogen, Prestige, Prestige II, and Prestige V with Havlogen (all inactivated from Intervet); Fluvac Innovator EHV-4/1 and Fluvac Innovator Triple-E FT+EHV (inactivated from Ft. Dodge); and Rhinomune (modified live virus from Pfizer). No vaccines are labeled against the neurologic form of EHV-1. Zylexis (Parapox Ovis virus vector) from Pfizer is an immunomodulator licensed to diminish clinical illness, particularly respiratory signs, from EHV-1 and -4 infections when administered prior to exposure and during disease incubation.Following are some of the points to the debate:

1. In the case of EHV-1, data from Cornell University suggests that horses vaccinated with Rhinomune will have significantly lower nasal shedding of EHV-1 virus after being infected with EHV-1 than horses vaccinated with an inactivated vaccine. This mighty be important in limiting the spread of the virus.

2. Modified live vaccines generate two types of immunity--humoral (just antibody) and cell mediated (lymphocytes). (The recombinant vaccines using vectors also stimulate both types of immunity.) Killed vaccines generate antibody only, which might not offer enough protection when the horse is faced with a strong challenge.

3. Modified live vaccines tend to create a stronger reaction by the vaccinated animal, so some individuals might have a greater risk of vaccine reactions (not disease) when a modified live vaccine is used. This risk has made some veterinarians and horse owners leery of modified live vaccines when a high risk of that particular disease is not anticipated. Timing is also important to avoid having signs of mild illness right before shipping or a major event.

4. Duration of measurable immunity in challenge studies tends to be longer with vaccines that create cell mediated immunity (modified live and vector).

5. Vaccination of animals in the face of exposure is very controversial and should be made on a case-by-case basis.For exposed horses that might be incubating the disease, it is probably too late to vaccinate or booster. The vaccine doesn't have enough time to give protection before the virus replicates. Minimizing stress and possibly using immunomodulators might make more sense. Zylexis (from Pfizer) has a label claim for EHV-1 and -4 respiratory disease, but it is intended for pre-exposure use.If the farm is such that there is clear division between exposed and unexposed populations, then more veterinarians will consider vaccinating the unexposed animals on the same farm.

Guidelines from the American Association of Equine Practitioners for outbreak control suggest perimeters of biosecurity precautions, vigilance over the already exposed, and vaccination of those that are not exposed, but at risk. That being said, all of the vaccines take a while to ramp up the immune system. One should not expect a single dose of vaccine to be as efficacious as two doses of vaccine given at the appropriate interval.

6. Sick horses should not be vaccinated, in my opinion. Vaccination data from the Findlay, Ohio, outbreak showed a trend that suggests horses given frequent vaccination with the killed vaccine could have increased risk of becoming a neurologic case, but it was not statistically significant.

Parasiticidal Resistance Reported in New Study

by: Stacey Oke, DVM, MSc
June 19 2008, Article # 12105

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Kentucky researchers report that roundworms and small strongyles, two common equine intestinal parasites, are developing resistance against most of the commercially available worming products. What's worse, no new drugs against either of these parasites are forthcoming on the market.

"Since drug resistance by small strongyles and roundworms has been increasing since the late 1950s, the purpose of this study was to obtain field data regarding the efficacy of commercial wormers to obtain more information on the development of drug resistance," explained Eugene Lyons, PhD, from the University of Kentucky's Gluck Equine Research Center.

Between June 1 and December 20, 2007, foals on five farms located in Central Kentucky were monitored in this field study. Efficacy of fenbendazole, oxibendazole, pyrantel pamoate, and ivermectin were evaluated by calculating the reduction in the number of foals with roundworm eggs or small strongyle eggs in their feces before versus after treatment.

"Our results showed that there was a significant reduction in roundworm eggs after treatment with fenbendazole and oxibendazole, but not ivermectin or pyrantel pamoate," summarized Lyons. "In addition, only ivermectin reduced the number of small strongyle eggs--the remaining three drugs were ineffective."

Lyons explained that while ivermectin still appears to be effective against small strongyles, research using worm count data in addition to egg count data needs to be done in order to evaluate why eggs of these parasites are returning more quickly than previously after treatment.

"In this study, we calculated eggs counts only one to two weeks post-worming. This might have been too early and providing misleading information because other studies have suggested that small strongyle eggs counts are returning more quickly than they used to post-treatment," said Lyons. (See Study: Small Strongyles Developing Resistance to Ivermectin for more on this.)

Parasite resistance to these drugs is a serious concern for horse owners, veterinarians, and the scientific community in general.

Summer is heating up and so are mosquito populations. Time is of the essence, but it's not too late to protect your horse against West Nile virus. With the new PreveNile vaccine from Intervet, one dose is all it takes to provide rapid immunity against West Nile virus (WNV).

PreveNile is the only one-dose WNV vaccine available for primary immunization. One-dose protection makes PreveNile the perfect choice for foals, horses with unknown vaccination history and as a booster for horses previously vaccinated with other West Nile vaccines.

Ask your veterinarian today about PreveNile - the superior, one-dose solution for WNV.

www.PreveNile.com

EQUINE INFLUENZA, THE MERCK MANUAL

Diagnosis Treatment and Prevention


Etiology and Epidemiology:

Equine influenza is highly contagious and spreads rapidly among susceptible horses. Two immunologically distinct influenza viruses have been found in horse populations worldwide except in Australia and New Zealand. Orthomyxovirus A/Equi-1 has not been isolated since 1980. Orthomyxovirus A/Equi-2 was first recognized in 1963 as a cause of widespread epidemics and has subsequently become endemic in many countries. Endemicity is maintained by sporadic clinical cases and by inapparent infection in susceptible horses that are introduced into the population by birth, through waning immunity, or after movement from other areas or countries. A carrier state is not recognized for equine influenza. The clinical outcome after viral exposure largely depends on immune status; clinical disease varies from a mild, inapparent infection to severe disease in susceptible animals. Influenza is rarely fatal except in donkeys, zebras, and debilitated horses. Transmission occurs by inhalation of respiratory secretions. Epidemics arise when one or more acutely infected horses are introduced into a susceptible group. The epidemiologic outcome depends on the antigenic characteristics of the circulating virus and the immune status of a given population of horses at time of exposure. Frequent natural exposure or regular vaccination may contribute to the degree of antigenic drift observed with specific strains of A/Equi-2 virus in some parts of the world.

Clinical Findings and Lesions:

The incubation period of influenza is ~1-3 days. Clinical signs begin abruptly and include high fever (up to 106°F [41.1°C]), serous nasal discharge, submandibular lymphadenopathy, and coughing that is dry, harsh, and nonproductive. Depression, anorexia, and weakness are frequently observed. Clinical signs usually last <3 days in uncomplicated cases. Influenza virus replicates within respiratory epithelial cells, resulting in destruction of tracheal and bronchial epithelium and cilia. Cough develops early in the course of infection and may persist for several weeks. Nasal discharge, although scant and serous initially, may become mucopurulent due to secondary bacterial infection. Mildly affected horses recover uneventfully in 2-3 wk; severely affected horses may convalesce for up to 6 mo. Recovery may be hastened by complete restriction of strenuous physical activity. Respiratory tract epithelium takes ~21 days to regenerate; during this time, horses are susceptible to development of secondary bacterial complications such as pneumonia, pleuropneumonia, and chronic bronchitis. Complications are minimized by restricting exercise, controlling dust, providing superior ventilation, and practicing good stable hygiene. Primary complications of vasculitis, myositis, and myocarditis are observed infrequently.

Diagnosis:

The presence of a rapidly spread respiratory infection in a group of horses characterized by rapid onset, high fever, depression, and cough is presumptive evidence of equine influenza. Definitive diagnosis can be determined by virus isolation, influenza A antigen detection, or paired serology (hemagglutination inhibition). Nasopharyngeal swabs are obtained for virus isolation and antigen detection. These samples should be obtained as soon as possible after the onset of illness. Virus isolation in chick embryos is highly specific, but less sensitive for detection of influenza due to bacterial contamination of the sample. Antigen detection is performed using a human influenza A kit, which provides immediate results that are not affected by bacterial contamination.

Treatment and Prevention:

Horses that do not develop complications require rest and supportive care. Horses should be rested 1 wk for every day of fever with a minimum of 3 wk rest (to allow regeneration of the mucociliary apparatus). NSAID are recommended for horses with a fever of >104°F (40C). Antibiotics are indicated when fever persists beyond 3-4 days or when purulent nasal discharge or pneumonia are present.
Prevention of influenza requires hygienic management practices and vaccination. Exposure can be reduced by isolation of newly introduced horses for 2 wk. Numerous vaccines are commercially available for prevention of equine influenza. An intranasal modified live influenza vaccine, designed to induce mucosal (local) antibody protection, has demonstrated protection against natural challenge. This vaccine is temperature sensitive and is not capable of replicating beyond the nasal passages. The majority of commercially available influenza vaccines are inactivated, adjuvanted vaccines recommended primarily for IM administration. Because the duration of protection provided by current vaccines is limited, booster injections probably should be administered often, eg, every 3-6 mo. Vaccine manufacturers monitor continuously to ensure influenza strain content reflects, as closely as possible, the antigenicity of current strains of field virus.

Suggested Vaccinations For Horses

Disease Type Vaccine
Administration Earliest Age Of Initial vaccine 2nd Vaccine Interval Revaccination Interval
Tetanus killed bacterin toxoid intramuscular
(in the muscle) 3 months 1 to 2 months later yearly
Encephalomyelitis
Eastern/Western killed virus intramuscular 3 months 1 to 2 months later yearly, before insect season
Equine
Influenza killed virus intramuscular 3 months 1 to 2 moths later every 3 months during epidemic/before shipping
Rhinopneumonitis* killed virus intramuscular 3 months 1 to 2 months later every 3 months during epidemic/before shipping

Strangles
Equine Distemper killed bacterin intramuscular 3 months 1 month later every 3 months during epidemic/before shipping
Rabies killed virus intramuscular 3 months 1 time per year yearly
Potomac Horse Fever killed bacterin intramuscular 3 months 3 weeks later yearly

*Pregnant mares should be vaccinated for Rhinopneumonitis during
the 5th, 7th and 9th months of gestation.
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Equine Disease Symptoms
Disease General Signs Spread
Tetanus Difficulty eating or walking, overreaction to noise, stiffness, elevation of the 3rd eyelid.
Not contagious; caused by punctures and wound infection.

Encephalomyelitis Often fatal; fever, staggering, circling, head pressing, depression and sleepiness.
Not contagious, but spread by mosquitoes.

Equine Influenza Rarely fatal; cough, loss of appetite, fever, depression, muscle soreness, discharge from the eyes & nose. Very contagious; keep affected animals isolated.

Rhinopneumonitis Respiratory distress; nasal discharge, cough, fever; causes abortion in pregnant mares. Very contagious; keep affected animals isolated.

Strangles Fever, swollen jaw glands, loss of appetite, cough, nasal discharge, can cause abortion in pregnant mares. Very contagious; keep affected animals isolated.

Potomac Horse Fever Lethargy, anorexia, fever, colic, laminitis, colitis, and diarrhea. Spread during insect season, vector unknown.

West Nile Virus

Signs of West Nile virus in horses: These symptoms can be confused with rabies, EPM ("Possum Disease), equine encephalitis, and other serious neurological diseases. If you see any of these signs in your horse, please see your veterinarian immediately. Stumbling or tripping ~ Muscle weakness or twitching ~ Partial paralysis ~ Loss of appetite ~ Depression or lethargy ~ Head pressing or tilt ~ Impaired vision ~ Wandering or circling ~ Inability to swallow ~ Inability to stand up ~ Fever ~ Convulsions ~ Coma.

West Nile shot for horses is first licensed DNA vaccine

Jul 21, 2005 (CIDRAP News) – Federal officials say a new West Nile virus (WNV) vaccine for horses, licensed this week, represents a breakthrough that may lead to important benefits for human vaccine development.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) said the vaccine is the world's first licensed DNA vaccine—one that uses small pieces of the target virus's genetic material instead of using a weakened or killed form of the whole virus.

The US Department of Agriculture (USDA) said it issued a license for the vaccine to Fort Dodge Laboratories, Fort Dodge, Iowa. The CDC helped the company develop the vaccine.

"This is truly an exciting innovation and an incredible scientific breakthrough that has potential benefits far beyond preventing West Nile virus in horses," CDC Director Dr. Julie Gerberding said in a news release. "This science will allow for the development of safer and more effective human and animal vaccines more quickly."

The way the USDA explained it, "Traditional vaccine development involves either passing a disease-producing virus through a different species or cell type until it no longer causes disease but does create immunity, or by killing the virus in such a manner that allows it to produce immunity but no disease in the recipient. DNA vaccines, by contrast, use specific fragments of a pathogen's unique genetic material to stimulate a targeted immune response from the host."

The CDC said DNA vaccines offer important advantages over traditional vaccines:

Once a vaccine model for an organism is developed, it can be adapted fairly quickly for similar organisms, which can be a major advantage in an emerging epidemic.
DNA vaccines are less vulnerable to changes in temperature, a major asset for vaccination campaigns in developing countries.
In addition, horses that have received a DNA vaccine can be distinguished from those that have been naturally infected, which is helpful for disease surveillance, the CDC said.

Work on the new vaccine began about 5 years ago at the CDC's branch in Fort Collins, Colo. In clinical studies, the vaccine protected horses from WNV-related illness without causing any major side effects. The USDA's Center for Veterinary Biologics determined that the vaccine's safety and efficacy have been satisfactorily demonstrated.

Fort Dodge expects to make the vaccine commercially available to veterinarians early in 2006, the CDC reported. The USDA said researchers are continuing to assess how long the protection afforded by the vaccine lasts.

The DNA technology used to develop the vaccine is serving as the foundation for an experimental human WNV vaccine, the CDC said. The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease (NIAID) announced the launch of a small clinical trial of the vaccine in April of this year. The NIAID is developing the vaccine in collaboration with Vical Inc. of San Diego.

More than 22,600 cases of WNV in horses were reported between 1999, when the virus first surfaced in North America, and the end of 2004, the USDA said. About a third of horses that fall ill with the mosquito-borne virus die or must be euthanized.

Two other WNV vaccines for horses are licensed and commercially available now, according to the Center for Equine Health at the University of California, Davis. Fort Dodge Animal Health makes an inactivated (killed virus) vaccine, while Merial makes a live vaccine based on a canarypox virus.

Keeping Barns Clean
by: Toby Raymond
May 2006 Article # 6961, www.thehorse.com

Keeping a barn clean is paramount to your horse's health, and your own, especially when you consider that a 1,000-pound horse produces roughly 50 pounds of manure and anywhere from six to 10 gallons of urine a day. Between the manure and the soiled bedding, the resulting waste is estimated at 20 tons a year. And, when you include the accompanying pests--from stable flies to parasite larvae--it's a sure bet that you need to keep your barn clean to keep your horse healthy.

Effects of Waste
The daily accumulation of waste from horses living in a stabled environment opens the way for bacteria and parasites to do their worst. And, if horses are left to stand in urine-soaked bedding and manure, the adverse affects can wreak havoc with delicate lungs and seemingly tough hooves.

Betsy Greene, PhD, an equine specialist at the University of Vermont's (UVM) Extension Service, explains, "Urine contains urea and hippuric acid, which as it breaks down, produces a volatile gas containing ammonia that can irritate sensitive tissues in both the eyes and lungs of horses and people alike."

She emphasizes the importance of keeping the barn well ventilated to minimize ammonia buildup. "If you walk into a barn and feel comfortably warm, chances are you'll also feel a sharp stinging in your eyes and nose from the by-products of ammonia and manure--that's what your horse is living with all the time," Greene says. "As a consequence, it's not surprising he may experience a host of health issues."

Greene recommends keeping fresh air circulating, even in the winter, but she cautions against creating drafts. "The idea is to establish cross-ventilation that will get rid or odors and stale air, not create a drafty environment, which can kick up dust that can contribute to eye and respiratory irritations," she says. "Two methods of air exchange include ridge vents and soffit vents, for example."

There are products on the market especially designed to eliminate odors and control moisture in horse stalls. One in particular is made from minerals known as zeolites which effectively absorb ammonia and associated gases by "locking up" the offending molecules, as well as de-moisturizing manure to arrest the development of insect larvae. "The benefits far outweigh the costs," remarks Greene. "On top of having an odor-free barn, you will also be inhibiting the fly population with a non-toxic, economical, environmentally friendly product."

On the other hand, hydrated lime is effective, but should be applied with caution. Greene points out that its caustic nature, which aids in the decomposition of urine and manure, can cause irritation to soft hoof tissue if it isn't covered up with adequate bedding.

Bob Coleman, PhD, with the University of Kentucky Extension Program, adds that horses should not be in the stall or barn when it is being cleaned and re-bedded. He says time is needed to allow the dust to settle and for the air to clear away any noxious fumes that have been released during cleaning.

Manure Management
If properly handled, the nutrients passed out in manure and urine can be recycled into the pasture to become viable nourishment. In fact, horse manure is considered to be a valuable farm commodity. For instance, a ton of horse manure not only provides organic matter and important trace minerals, it is equivalent to 100 pounds of 14-5-11 fertilizer (14% nitrogen/5% phosphorus/11% potash). But, regardless of whether you plan to use manure in your pasture or not, it must be removed from the stable area.

Manure removal- Daily collection is vital to maintaining a healthy stable environment, but what you do with it is arbitrary. If you don't have pasture space or choose not to spread or compost it, you can create a temporary stockpile until it can be hauled away. There are collection services that specialize in manure removal, or you can make arrangements with a waste management company to take the manure along with your other garbage. If this is the route you decide to go, make sure you choose a holding site far from the barn or paddocks and away from running water. Regardless of where you live, check the rules before you dump manure. For example, according to the Vermont Agency of Agriculture's Accepted Agricultural Practice Conditions and Restrictions, "Manure stacking sites and storage of fertilizer and other nutrient sources shall not be located within 100 feet of wells or property boundaries."

Spreading- Another option is to spread the manure daily. To do this properly, you need to distribute it in a thin layer, which then needs to be harrowed in order to promote quick drying. It is this drying process that helps impede hatching of parasite eggs and larvae growth. As a cautionary note, while Coleman reluctantly accepts the custom of spreading fresh manure on an established grass pasture, he maintains that horses shouldn't be allowed to graze on it during that season to make sure the parasites have been eliminated.

"I've seen too many cases where owners have been tempted to disregard safe management practices by putting their horses on the pasture before it has had a chance to cure," says Coleman. "Even if it looks like the manure has been absorbed, the ground could still be harboring larvae and eggs. It's like feeding your horse a dose of parasites." He goes on to say that the other reason he doesn't look favorably upon spreading manure has to do with the idea of encouraging good neighbor relations. "As farms continue to be broken up and pasture land gives way to housing developments, having close non-horse neighbors is almost a certain reality in most states. Therefore, to keep everyone on cordial terms, it's important to respect the fact that they might not like the smell of manure drifting into their homes."

Greene also makes a point that you should check your state agricultural statutes with regard to your area's spreading season, as you will be held accountable should there be a complaint. In Vermont, for example, the Agency of Agriculture states, "Manure shall not be spread between Dec. 15 and April 1 unless the Secretary grants an exemption because of an emergency situation, such as, but not limited to, the structural failure of a manure storage system or for other specific management needs. In granting an exemption, the Secretary shall determine that the manure will be spread on fields with the least likelihood of generating runoff to the adjoining surface waters. Being granted an exemption does not relieve persons from complying with the Vermont Water Quality Standards." These standards are as follows: "Barnyards, manure storage areas, animal holding areas, and production areas shall be managed or controlled to prevent runoff of wastes to adjoining waters, groundwater, or across property boundaries."

Composting- This is considered the most convenient and cost-effective approach to staying on top of the situation. With proper collection and management, the manure should transform into the darkly rich organic matter that is so highly prized as a soil conditioner and nutrient additive. There are three phases through which manure will go before the decomposition process is complete, and can take anywhere from a few weeks to several months to mature depending on the nutrient values present in the manure.
"While composting is a great idea and should be considered, you would do well to contact your Extension service to learn the particulars of composting in your area," maintains Coleman. "It takes effort and time, but it's worth it in the end," he concludes.

Following are the phases of composting.
Phase I is when manure is composed of undigested food mixed with digestive juices and bacteria that when combined with urine--which is most often collected in some sort of organically based bedding--becomes the medium that begins the decomposition process. At this stage, as the ammonia begins to form, it is recommended to turn over the manure and pack it down to create the right environment for bacterial fermentation. Be sure that the pile is moist, but not soggy.

Phase II is when the insoluble nitrogen in the feces is broken down to produce more ammonia that in turn feeds the bacteria, which furthers the conversion process. The degree to which the manure becomes bio-available depends on the amount and type of feed given in addition to the age and health of the horses that have processed it. A 30:1 ratio of carbon to nitrogen is the goal, so if the compost pile is generating a strong ammonia smell, for example, chances are the carbon to nitrogen ration is too low--a result of feed that is exceptionally high in protein or from having too little soiled bedding added to the mix.

Phase III, the last phase, is when the bacteria release their remaining nitrogen while the fiber part of the compost (which has also finally decomposed) releases carbon dioxide and water to create the desired finished product. If done correctly, parasite eggs or larvae should have been eliminated along with what was once the breeding ground for flies. Plus, the manure pile has now become about half its original size, is odor-free, and is ready to be used as fertilizer.

The optimum conditions for composting would include constructing a three-sided cement or wooden containment area that can be covered with a roof, plastic tarp, or soil to protect it from the elements, which can burn or leach away nutrients. If this is not an option, prepare a six-foot by six-foot open pile in an area that will allow enough room to be enlarged length wise until such time as spreading becomes convenient.

Greene emphasizes checking local zoning regulations. You want to be sure that the pile is sufficiently enough far away from your neighbors, as well as from the barn and house; however, you also want it to be easily accessible for daily use and seasonal hauling. She suggests that for additional information on how to get started with composting, check out The Horse Owner's Guide to Composting, an excellent reference that can be accessed through UVM's Extension Service (www.uvm.edu/extension/publications/horses/horsemanurecompost.pdf).

Insect Control
Insects such as stable flies, horseflies, deerflies, horn flies, and mosquitoes can be more than just a nuisance; they can be responsible for a range of problems ranging from leg or hoof concussion caused by repeated stomping, to increased stress levels leading to weight loss, allergic reactions in the form of eosinophilic granulomas (a series of raised bumps usually occurring on the chest, back, or belly), as well as being carriers for a host of serious diseases, including West Nile virus.
When you consider that just one female stable fly, who is estimated to produce 20 batches of 40 to 80 eggs each that typically hatch within 21 to 25 days, will ultimately foster millions of offspring, it is a given that keeping the fly population under control is essential to maintaining the health and welfare of your horse.

Control insect breeding areas Since manure and soiled bedding provide the ideal breeding ground for flies, it is yet another reason to keep your horse's stall as clean as possible. The rest of the barn needs to be kept clean and dry, especially the areas around the water buckets and water tanks. Be sure to fix leaky drains or faucets as soon as possible, as these areas can become prime breeding sites.

Chemical use There are a variety of products designed to control insects, but be sure when using a chemical--either with insecticides intended to kill pests, or repellents developed to keep them away--you follow the directions carefully. Also be careful you don't overdo applications since insects can develop resistance, and the vapors from sprays or mists can irritate your horse's respiratory system.

Here are several insecticide options from which to choose; remember, prevention is still the best means of control:
• Long-term insecticides are applied to areas in which flies tend to congregate, i.e., around feeders, water sources, or flat beams, and, depending upon the specific product, can be effective for up to six weeks.
• Fogs and mists are intended for daily use, and they can be regulated automatically through a designated system.
• Chemical larvicides can be administered orally to horses on a daily basis or on a rotation schedule to kill larvae in fresh manure.
• Baits such as fly strips and sex attractants are useful in high-traffic areas.

Rodent Control
As with insects, rodent control is also a problem that must be addressed in order to maintain a clean barn. Rodents are carriers of disease, and they are resourceful scavengers that can cause significant damage and health problems. Again, prevention is the key, although there are professional exterminators or a number of poisons or traps that will do the job if you already have a problem. Coleman says, "By storing all grain products in impenetrable containers, and by getting a barn cat--your greatest secret weapon--you'll be ahead of the game."

Take-Home Message
Keeping a barn clean is not rocket science; it's a matter of combining common sense with good habits. A barn is a horse's home; his stall is his bed. Make it every day as you would your own. He'll thank you for it every time he feels comfortable enough to lie down for a good night's rest.

BREAKING NEWS---

House Votes to Ban Horse Slaughter
by: Chad Mendell, Staff Writer
September 13,  2006 Article # 7590, www.thehorse.com, Horse Health E Newsletter

In an act that went against the recommendations of the Secretary of Agriculture and two prominent veterinary groups, on Sept. 7 Congress voted 263-146 to end horse slaughter in the United States. House members also defeated two amendments that were added to the bill by members of the Agricultural Subcommittee.

“Americans have long had a love affair with horses, both domesticated and wild,” said Ed Sayres, president of the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, in a press release. “The recent public and media interest in the recovery of Kentucky Derby winner Barbaro is a clear indication of the fascination, awe, and empathy we feel for these magnificent animals. The history of our nation is indelibly linked to these great creatures and, with the passage of this bill, we are one step closer to treating horses as we should—as valued members of our humane community.”

The American Horse Slaughter Prevention Act (H.R. 503), if signed into law, would "prohibit the shipping, transporting, moving, delivering, receiving, possessing, purchasing, selling, or donation of horses and other equines to be slaughtered for human consumption, and for other purposes." A similar bill (S. 1915) awaits a hearing in the Senate, where if passed it would then go to the President for his signature before becoming a law.

The USDA has expressed its opposition for H.R. 503. In a letter addressed to Bob Goodlatte, R-Va., chair of Agricultural Subcommittee, Agriculture Secretary Mike Johanns said, "We have serious concerns that the welfare of these horses would be negatively impacted by a ban on slaughter."

The bill, which had more than 200 co-sponsors in the House, has been a volatile issue because of the horse's place in American culture. One of the main concerns from those who oppose the bill is what will happen to horses intended for slaughter if plants are closed.

Two veterinary groups--the American Association of Equine Practitioners (AAEP) and the American Veterinary Medical Association--strongly opposed the ban, stating that it would solve few problems, and create others.

"This bill will negatively impact the health and welfare of horses across the country and offers no solution to the current problem of what to do with horses that are no longer needed or useful to their owners," said Tom R. Lenz, DVM, MS, AAEP past president and chairman of that group’s Equine Welfare Committee. "Horses processed at USDA-regulated facilities under the supervision of federal veterinarians are treated with dignity and euthanized humanely."

Kellye Fondy, manager of communications for the American Quarter Horse Association, said, "We are disappointed in the outcome of the vote. We really feel like emotion won over common sense. We have not changed our position on the bill, and we will continue our efforts to deal with unwanted horses."

The two amendments, one that would require certification of equine rescue groups before implementing a ban to ensure they could handle in the increased load, and another that would exempt people who eat horsemeat as part of their culture (such as the Sioux Indians) and would allow them to continue to slaughter horses commercially, were both defeated 229-177 and 256-149, respectively.

Goodlatte expressed his disappointment in the amendment's defeat, "The amendments were created to correct some of these problems created by this bill."

Those who oppose the bill say that horses will be shipped to countries where there are fewer regulations for humane treatment. More than 90,000 horses were slaughtered in the United States last year, and another 21,000 horses were shipped to Canada, and another 11,000 were exported to Mexico for slaughter, according to the USDA.

At least one country, Japan, would be unaffected by a U.S. ban on horse slaughter, according to a DNA World article.

"Japanese imports of horse meat are unaffected by the U.S. vote because first of all, Japan does not import that much from the United States," Agriculture Ministry official Hidetoshi Akinaga said in the article.

"Japan's main trade partners for horse meat are Canada, Brazil, and Argentina," Akinaga said. “These three countries account for 82% of Japan's horsemeat imports."

The National Thoroughbred Racing Association and the Humane Society of the United States supported the passage of H.R. 503. John Sweeney, R-N.Y., a cosponsor of the bill, said, "Since 1979, there have been efforts and attempts to bring this piece of legislations to the floor for debate. Horse slaughter is one of the most inhumane, brutal, shady practices going on in the U.S. This is a piece of legislation that is long overdue."

Goodlatte stated, "A responsible horse owner should have the right to choose. Make no mistake about it; H.R. 503 provides no solutions, it only creates more problems

West Nile Virus in 31 States

by: Stephanie L. Church, News Editor, The Horse Magazine 
September 2006 Article # 7459

Thirty-one states have reported detecting West Nile virus (WNV) in 2006, according to the latest data reported on the U.S. Geological Survey web site (last updated July 25). The disease has infected horses in 10 states: Colorado, Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, North Dakota, Texas, Utah, Wisconsin, and Wyoming.

Human cases have been reported in California, Colorado, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, South Dakota, Texas, and Utah. According to the Centers for Disease Control, one human fatality due to WNV has been reported this year (Mississippi).

Officials have found WNV in birds and mosquitoes in Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Florida, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin